Battle of Xanthos 42 BC ?? Rise of Caesar Augustus (Part 3) - Ancient history

 

Emulating his adoptive father Julius Caesar, in August of 43 BC, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus marched his legions on Rome. The young heir crossed his own Rubicon, to force the Senate into compliance and extort the office of Consul for himself.

 At the head of eight legions, little stood in his way to the eternal city.

 Cicero’s wavering senate chose to send an embassy to Octavian, accepting his demands and offering him the right to stand for Consul. But at the same time, two legions, loyal to the Senate, arrived from Africa, rejuvenating the fighting spirit of the political elite in Rome.

 As Appian puts it: “It seemed as though the gods were urging them to defend their freedom”.

 But the embassy sent from Rome was already in the middle of negotiations with Octavian when they learned of the Senate’s backtracking, throwing all negotiations into confusion.

 Octavian, however, remained undeterred. He camped his legions outside of the city walls and marched into the forum with his praetorians.

 The legions of the Republic went over to Octavian without hesitation… The senators then advanced to meet him and declare their capitulation. Among them, but not in the lead, was Cicero. “Ah, the last of my friends,” the young Octavian ironically observed… In the evening of that same day, someone spread a rumour that the two legions had declared for the Republic. If true, Octavian’s plan would’ve been in trouble.

 But he held his nerve and the rumours ultimately proved false. Perhaps revealingly, Cicero fled the capital soon after.

 Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus was soon elected consul, himself not yet twenty years old.

 The day was August 19th, 43 BC.

 While the political turmoil unfolded in Italy, the two main generals of the Republican forces were busy consolidating their power in the East.

 Marcus Brutus and Cassius Longinus emerged as the leaders of the Optimates, both being members of the self-proclaimed “liberators”.

 This was the cabal of Senators that conspired to assassinate Julius Caesar.

 In the wake of Caesar’s assassination, both Brutus and Cassius were forced to leave the city of Rome and were assigned governorships of Macedonia and Syria respectively.

 However, after the ascendance of Mark Antony, Macedonia was assigned to his brother Gaius Antonius and Syria to a man named Dolabella, much against the will of the Senate.

 But after campaigning briefly in the province of Macedonia and Illyricum, Brutus succeeded in capturing Gaius Antonius. In a shrewd move, Brutus publicly showed clemency, thereby winning the support of Antonius’ legions. With the Republican numbers bolstered, he proceeded to secure his position in Macedonia and Thrace.

 Around the same time, Cassius was able to lift a siege between the quarrelling Caesarian legions at Apamea and bring them under his banner.

 Dolabella, though, was not being idle, ordering one of his legates from Egypt, to bring over his four legions and assist him against Cassius.

 But, acting proactively, Cassius marched his army of eight legions into Judea and was able to surprise the legate.

 Surrounded and faced with a 1:2 numerical disadvantage, the legate surrendered.

 With twelve first-rate

 legions now under his command,

 Cassius marched to confront Dolabella, who barricaded himself behind the walls of Laodicea.

 Cassius besieged by both land and sea, even erecting a barricade 370m in length to ensure that Dolabella would not be able to receive reinforcements or provisions.

 After a couple of naval battles, Cassius was able to break into the harbour and occupy the city.

 Shortly after, Dolabella took his own life. His two legions sworn to serve Cassius, who allowed his men to plunder the temples and impose severe punishments on the chief citizens of Laodicea.

 The combined legions of Brutus and Cassius were now a force to be reckoned with, making a compromise between

 Antony and Octavian inevitable.

 Back in Italy, the young Consul who now had 17 legions under his command, was seeking reconciliation instead of a battle against the Antonians. In a gesture of goodwill, he revoked the decrees of outlawry that the senate had passed against Antony.

 He also passed the lex Pedia, a law that established the murder of Caesar as a capital crime. All pretence about his real intentions towards the senate was now off the table.

 And, after a brief exchange of friendly correspondences, Octavian and Antony met in person on a small, depressed islet in a river near the city of Mutina.

 This monumental meeting culminated in the formation of the so-called second Triumvirate, composed of Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus.

 One of the main decisions they agreed on was the creation of a whole new magistracy for quieting civil dissension ratified by law, which Antony, Lepidus and Octavian would hold for five years with consular power.

 The three Triumvirs would also designate the yearly magistrates of the city for five years.

 Furthermore, they would distribute the Roman provinces among themselves. Antony was to govern Gallia Cisalpina and Gallia Comata, Lepidus took over Gallia Narbonensis and the two Spains, while Octavian was put in charge of Africa, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy remained neutral ground.

 Each of the three also assumed a different task.

 Lepidus was to remain in Rome to oversee the interests of the Triumvirate.

 Octavian would operate against Senatorial forces that occupied the island of Sicily.

 And Antony would leave for Brundisium, to prepare for a crossing of the Adriatic Sea for the final reckoning against Brutus and Cassius.

 Just before they embarked on their respective tasks, the Triumvirs had almost everything, except money. They agreed to solve the problem in November 44 BC by introducing a series of proscriptions that enabled them to take the lives and fortunes of thousands of their political enemies.

 Terror swept through the city of Rome.

 Among the many victims was Cicero, whose political miscalculations and bitter rivalry against Mark Antony finally cost him his life.

 Meanwhile, Brutus and Cassius

 met at Smyrna in late 43 BC.

 Brutus favoured an immediate march to Macedonia that was about to become the main theatre of operations against the Triumvirs. Cassius, on the other hand, believed that they first needed to secure their rear supply lines, which were essential for sustaining their great numbers.

 His view was sound. Both the Rhodians and Lycians possessed fleets that could disrupt their lines of communication, and both were friendly to Octavian and Antony.

 Cassius argued that they had to be put under control, and his opinion eventually prevailed.

 Brutus marched against the Lycians and Cassius embarked to confront Rhodes.

 Although the Rhodians were famous for successfully resisting powerful conquerors in the past, the citizens were alarmed at the prospect of a conflict with the Romans.

 However, the commoners were eager, drawing inspiration from their previous successes.

 After a brief exchange of embassies, the Rhodian navy launched a surprise attack against Cassius’ fleet but was unsuccessful.

 Cassius proceeded to launch a meticulously planned amphibious attack against the city, during which the Rhodians decided that any further effort against the Roman general would be futile.

 Some of the citizens who were favourable to Cassius, apprehensive of famine and worried about the city’s fate, opened the gates.

 Even though Cassius forbade any kind of looting on the penalty of death, he confiscated all the money that was found in the temples and the public treasury, and he ordered all private citizens to hand over their valuables or face execution.

 The Rhodians were squeezed dry… Meanwhile, Brutus was campaigning in Lycia. The Republican general demanded supplies and troops from the Lycians, who mostly complied apart from one notable exception, the city of Xanthus.

 The Xanthians decided defiantly to defend their city, forcing Brutus to take personal command of the siege.

 In early 42 BC, The Xanthians first destroyed their city’s suburbs to deprive Brutus of lodgement and materials. They then surrounded their city with a trench and embankment, from where they fought, hurling darts and arrows against the attacking Romans.

 But Brutus resolutely launched an assault that broke through the entrenchments.

 He then divided his army into day and night rotations to maintain the siege around the clock.

 There is no specific mention of the forces involved in any ancient source, but we can assume that Brutus had multiple legions under his command, while the Xanthian defenders

 probably heavily outnumbered.

 The Roman general brought up material from the surrounding area to create siege engines.

 He spurred his men on with promises of hefty rewards once the city was taken.

 These enticements proved effective because the legions were able to completely envelop the city within a few days despite heavy resistance.

 The Xanthians were in for a bitter struggle.

 Brutus attacked the city walls with battering rams and ordered constant assaults against the gate defenders with his foot soldiers.

 Even though the defenders had the advantage of a well-fortified position, the incessant attacks drained their morale and energy. Roman troops, meanwhile, remained fresh, with half of the army operating during the day and the other half attacking at night. Eventually, the battering rams created a

 breach in the walls of the city, but unexpectedly Brutus ordered his men to retreat and abandon their siege equipment.

 The cunning Roman had foreseen that this would entice the defenders to leave their fortifications. As he had expected, the Xanthians, thinking that the enemy had deserted their siege works, darted out by night with torches to set fire to the rams.

 Lying in wait, Brutus sprang his trap.

 His legionaries attacked the Xanthians who were now desperately trying to retreat to their fortifications. But the guards, fearing that the enemy would pour into the city, closed the gates before they could enter.

 What followed was a general massacre of the Xanthians who were trapped outside the walls… The following day, hostilities resumed.

 The remaining defenders once again sallied forward, since the besiegers had once again abandoned their battering rams.

 This time though, the gates were left open, to avoid a similar calamity from happening again.

 During the Roman counterattack and the subsequent retreat of the Xanthians, about 2000 Romans were able to break into the city with them. Suddenly, the gates closed behind them leaving the 2000 Romans trapped within the city walls. The stranded Romans who were now pelted by missiles on all sides were able to force their way through until they reached the centre of the city, where they made their last stand.

 The Romans outside the walls launched a general assault on the city,

 desperate to rescue their comrades.

 Some climbed the walls, while

 others began hacking the gates.

 While the Romans fought to enter the city, the Xanthians mobilized to deal with the legionaries that were trapped inside.

 Enticed by the anguished cries of battle from within the city, Brutus’ men fought frantically to get to their comrades. Finally, they tore down the gates and rushed through in great numbers, shouting out to signal to those trapped in the city that help was coming.

 As night fell the Roman army streamed through the streets, with most structures now engulfed in flames. The defenders, defiant to the last moment, torched their houses rather than surrender.

 Only a handful of Xanthians

 lived to see the next dawn…

 Lycia was now thoroughly pacified.

 Brutus marched his army to Sardis where he met Cassius who was coming from Ionia. The two Republican Generals merged their legions into a large striking force and prepared to march into Macedonia.

 The Triumvirs, meanwhile, were

 amassing their own forces.

 Back in Italy, Antony faced difficulties in making a contested crossing of the Adriatic.

 He sent word to Octavian, asking him to abandon operations around Sicily and come to his aid.

 They were eventually able to ferry their huge host across the Adriatic without much trouble and began marching eastward.

 The final reckoning of the Optimates and the Populares was only days away…