Battle of Satala 298 AD - Roman - Sasanian Wars

 

Somewhere in western Armenia, not far from the Roman border, encamped was the Sasanian royal army. King of Kings Narseh decided not to disband his army over the winter, in preparation for the upcoming campaign against the Romans.

 The vast camp was abuzz, as the locals came and went, trading their goods

 and crafts with the troops.

 As the morning wore on, three Armenian market-gardeners, carrying a carriage full of cabbages, approached the gate, asking permission to enter and sell their wares.

 After a brief exchange they were allowed inside.

 But… these men were no cabbage traders.

 As the gates closed behind the strangers, the guards were unaware that two of the men were Armenian nobles… while the third man was the Roman emperor Galerius – and they had just infiltrated the Sasanian Royal camp… By the late 3rd century , Rome went through decades of decline.

 Periods of drought , famine , floods , and the 20-year long Plague of Cyprian devastated the population, reducing the manpower of the army, and the perpetual power struggles between emperors, their rivals, and usurpers, all primarily concerned with scheming against each other, further weakened the empire internally and left the borders largely neglected .

 In the West, incursions across the Rhine and the Danube, by the Franks, the Alemanni, and the Goths, exploited and exacerbated the empire’s instability.

 Worse , in the East rose a new superpower.

 Ardashir I, founder of the Sasanian Empire and, more importantly, his son and successor Shapur I, dramatically contributed to the onset of the Crisis of the Third Century, through military successes against Rome’s eastern provinces.

 Shapur , perhaps the greatest of Sasanian King of Kings, pushed the border west, pulling Hatra into the Sasanian sphere of influence and wresting control over Kingdom of Armenia.

 What followed were years humiliation inflicted upon the Romans,

 as Shapur sacked the rich Roman provinces and countless large cities, destroyed several imperial armies, and killed or captured two Roman emperors, Gordian III in 244 AD and Valerian in 260 AD.

 Rome suffered massive financial and manpower drain, and the disastrous defeats undermined confidence in the emperors, provoking a slew of military rebellions and usurpations that eventually broke the empire into three rival regimes.

 The structural integrity of Rome’s imperial machine fell apart, the frontier system crumbled, and the collapse of legitimacy saw usurper, after usurper, making their violent bids for power.

 However, as the plague slowly subsided in Europe and the Middle East, and the aging Shapur launched fewer and fewer campaigns in the last years of his reign, before dying in 270 AD, later Roman emperors were able to piece the empire back together in dramatic fashion , and managed to regain a firm foothold in the East, recognizing that subsequent Sasanian rulers couldn’t match Shapur’s brilliance, and had to contend with rebellions of their own.

 By this time , the two empires needed respite after decades of war .

 And, in 284, the Roman Imperial Army was marching back home from Lower Mesopotamia .

 Not far from Nicomedia ,

 in Bithynia, the weary troops were relieved to be away from the fighting, with even Emperor Numerian himself staying inside his carriage.

 But… all was not well. Although the emperor was apparently resting, no one has seen or spoken to him for days, until a foul smell of death came from the Imperial carriage. The alarmed troops attempted to draw Numerian’s attention, but it was clear that the emperor mysteriously died.

 Strangely, his father and predecessor, emperor Carus, also died in mysterious circumstances just months prior, supposedly after being fatally struck by lightning, while campaigning in Lower Mesopotamia – though it’s possible he was killed by the Sasanian troops.

 Now, the dead emperor’s generals and tribunes elected a new Emperor. The Army of the East gathered and unanimously saluted Diocles as their new Augustus, and he accepted the purple imperial vestments. Not long after he changed his name to a more Latin sounding “Diocletian”… After overthrowing the previous emperor’s brother Carinus in the West , the new emperor appointed his friend and general Maximian as the new Western Emperor.

 The two appointed their own junior emperors, Constantius in the west and Galerius in the east.

 This arrangement, which modern scholars call the Tetrarchy (the rule of four), helped to clarify the succession in an age rife with usurpation, ensuring that there was an emperor present on every major frontier .

 Diocletian proved an exceptional administrator, dismantling the Augustan illusion, revamping civil and military services, reorganizing the provinces and developing the empire’s bureaucracy.

 Unprecedented effort was dedicated to reorganizing and strengthening the empire’s eastern provinces, creating a defence-in-depth system, as well as dealing with internal rebellions.

 A comprehensive tax reform addressed inequality, increased efficiency and covered the growing bureaucratic and military spending.

 On the diplomatic level, Diocletian skilfully negotiated a treaty with Rome’s eastern neighbour that divided Armenia between the two empires and saw Tiridates III , a member of the old Parthian ruling elite, who were enemies of the Sasanians, installed on the throne in Western Armenia, as a Roman client. And , for the next few years, peace endured on the Roman-Sasanian border.

 Meanwhile, the Sasanian King of Kings Bahram II , the grandson of Shapur, faced massive rebellions started by members of his family and various religious leaders. Nevertheless, he did well to balance relations with the Romans and keep his empire together . So despite giving up western Armenia, Bahram used the peace with Diocletian to consolidate and prepare for a conflict against Rome that was surely coming. Upon his death , he was succeeded by his son, Bahram III .

 However, there still lived the youngest son of Shapur I, Narseh , who until now ruled as the Persian Great King of Armenia. Needless to say, he was none too pleased that he lost hold over western Armenia because of Bahram II’s dealings with Diocletian . In addition, he grew tired of being passed over for the throne in favour of other members of the Sasanian dynasty, believing that his brother Bahram I, the former ruler and Shapur’s third son, and his descendants had excluded him from his rightful place as King of Kings .

 Four months into the reign of Bahram III, his great uncle Narseh challenged him and, with the support of the eastern satraps and a powerful faction of the nobility, marched on the capital, where he forced the abdication of Bahram , becoming the first Sasanian King of Kings to not ascend the throne as a crown prince .

 Roman emperors and Tiridates of Armenia sent their congratulations.

 But… Narseh did not have peace on his mind.

 Wishing to revive the glory days of his father, the new King of Kings prepared for war… Three years after ascending

 the throne he made his move,

 marching his army into Roman-held Upper Mesopotamia, catching them completely unprepared.

 The emperor in the vicinity was Diocletian’s Caesar Galerius.

 Faced with Narseh’s surprise invasion, the Caesar led a small army to Upper Mesopotamia and sent urgent messages to

 Diocletian for reinforcements .

 Galerius met the King of Kings twice , fighting a delaying action and suffering only minor losses as he retreated.

 But , in the third encounter, his much smaller force received the worst of it, suffering heavy losses, before retreating back towards Syria.

 Considering the limited manpower available to him , Galerius’ campaign might’ve seemed reckless, but in fact it was a bold and considered action that served to blunt the Sasanian offensive, preventing Narseh from entering Syria, just in time for Diocletian to arrive with an army .

 Aware that Narseh possessed cavalry vastly superior in quality and numbers, the Romans dug in and began reorganizing.

 Diocletian would remain to keep watch over Syria while Galerius went back to gather reinforcements in the Balkans.

 He was perhaps the most capable commander Diocletian had at his disposal, having led armies with success in several theatres over the years.

 It is said that he was a very large and imposing figure, who kept bears as pets, and according to contemporary sources, he matched his bears in both size and ferocity .

 Galerius collected various units, including a contingent of Gothic mercenaries, whose cavalry would help to balance the playing field against elite Sasanian cataphracts.

 On the march back east, he

 also raised new recruits

 to complement his veterans and endeavoured to have them trained as quickly as possible.

 Meanwhile , Narseh invaded western Armenia, expelling Tiridates and the pro-Roman nobility.

 Forced to wait for Galerius to arrive with additional troops , Diocletian couldn’t act against the

 much larger Sasanian host.

 The situation worsened in autumn of 297, when a usurper, Domitius , exploited the uncertainty to seize power in Egypt and stake his claim to the empire.

 When Galerius rejoined the emperor , it was immediately clear that the situation in Egypt needed attention fast, as Domitius directly threatened the grain supply to the rest of Rome .

 Diocletian rushed to Alexandria to besiege the rebel,

 leaving Galerius to continue the war alone with a part of the army.

 Meanwhile , as cold weather approached, Narseh and the royal army were consolidating the Sasanian hold on western Armenia. Establishing winter quarters in Armenia ensured that the Romans could not march on Ctesiphon, as this would expose their communications from the north, which would, in effect, force Galerius to either stay put or march through the mountainous Armenia, once the snow melted .

 But… despite the onset of winter, Galerius audaciously led his men north into the Cappadocian highlands with an army of 25,000. Tiridates joined along the way with his cataphracts that were of comparable quality to those of the Sasanians.

 At Satala , the Roman army rallied and restocked on provisions,

 before continuing east

 towards Armenia with haste.

 The decision to march in the bitter winter weather again showed Galerius’ willingness to take risks, as he wanted to surprise Narseh with a forced winter march.

 The small force he had under his command shows that he didn’t have time to complete preparations and he may have realised that, with Diocletian taking the main army to Egypt, he might not even have enough time to build up his forces before spring. And if he remained outnumbered once the snow melts, it would’ve been difficult to deal with the superior Sasanian cavalry.

 In his mind, now was the time to strike, while he could utilize his veteran infantry in the rugged terrain, when the enemy least expected him.

 Local scouts soon returned , bringing reports that the Sasanian camp is just to the east … Next morning, a most extraordinary thing took place.

 The ever bold Galerius walked up to the Sasanian camp, accompanied by two Armenian nobles. The three tried to gain entry disguised as market gardeners, intending to sell cabbage.

 The ruse worked and, looking like three peasants, they were now free to have a

 look around the enclosure.

 The Sasanian camp was like a large caravan.

 Narseh brought with him possibly upwards of 40,000 troops (although there are no reliable sources for the size of his army).

 In tow were the palace and army baggage, the main tents, the royal treasury, his entire harem of women, mobile royal quarters of his queen of queens and the rest of his household, as well as a multitude of elephants and enough supplies to last around 6 months until summer.

 As they moved through the camp, offering to sell their cabbages, Galerius spotted a weak

 section of the outer palisade, that was fairly close to the woods, and noted that Narseh’s inner royal enclosure was vulnerable.

 The Caesar now had a plan and the three men casually started walking back towards the gate, trying not to arouse suspicion .

 The story of Galerius’ entry into the Sasanian camp would’ve been considered unlikely, had it not been mentioned by four different sources, all claiming that the Caesar personally reconnoitred the royal camp of Narseh.

 Whatever the case, Galerius spotted weaknesses in the Sasanian enclosure, and by nightfall he was on his way back to his troops… Just after dawn, while most of the Sasanian camp was asleep and unaware of what was to come, Roman troops crept out of the woods, crawling towards the weak point in the wall.

 Half way to the camp, Galerius gave the signal !

 As ladders went up on the walls, Sasanian guards sounded the alarm and rushed to drive back the enemy.

 But the better prepared Romans held fast, maintaining their position on

 the narrow palisade walkway,

 protecting the troops on the ground who worked to tear down a section of the wooden palisade.

 Even as they breached the wall, the negligently unconcerned and unsuspecting Sasanian troops were slow to react.

 Torn from their sleep, a handful of officers managed to form their units and rushed upon the Romans, but the defence of the breach lacked proper organisation.

 Galerius’ men formed their own defensive line on each side of the breach, with experienced Armenian and Gothic troops covering the advance of the Roman infantry, who rushed forward, directly targeting the royal enclosure.

 Elite Sasanian troops stood fast, protecting Narseh’s compound,

 but most were too surprised and dishevelled to combat the Roman breakthrough.

 More and more of Galerius’ troops poured into the breach and soon, they forced their way among the tents of the Sasanian ruling elite.

 In the chaos, the few defenders who entered the fray were poorly supported, and by the time news spread across the camp about the attack, inside the royal enclosure, the Sasanian nobility and their retinues were already surrendering.

 Such was the speed of the attack that even Narseh and his personal guards failed to react.

 The King of Kings managed to flee with his life just in time, supposedly suffering a light wound during the fighting.

 But, the vast Sasanian royal treasury, provisions, equipment, and at least 13 elephants were captured. Worse, the great king’s wives, sisters and daughters, including his queen of queens, fell captive.

 As the day wore on, the Romans exacted revenge for past humiliations, sparing not one enemy soldier, whilst the women and children found in the camp were taken into captivity.

 In the aftermath of the battle, Galerius continued the invasion of Persia for much of 298, striking deep into the interior, before advancing on Ctesiphon from the east, and then marching up into Upper Mesopotamia, recapturing the Roman fortress of Nisibis .

 The humiliated Narseh kept his distance from the Caesar, failing to contend the invasion, and had positioned himself further east.

 Meanwhile , Diocletian was on his way back from Egypt, having crushed the usurpation after a gruelling 8 month long siege of Alexandria, and in early 299 he joined Galerius to outline the terms of peace for the Sasanians.

 Large expanses of territory were ceded by Narseh to Rome and Armenia, and the wealth taken by the victorious Romans was so vast that it achieved legendary status, with its’ transport back to Rome posing significant logistical challenges.

 The total defeat at Satala and the manner in which it occurred would remain a sore point for the Sasanians for decades to come, with the ruling elite complaining that Armenia and Northern Mesopotamia were dishonorably torn from Persia by use of a trick.

 Galerius’ victory was a bright moment for the Romans after decades of crisis and humiliation.

 His victory in the east, arguably, remained unmatched until the achievements of Heraclius in the seventh century. The capture of Narseh’s wives, sisters, and daughters became the equivalent of the capture of prior Roman emperors by the Persians, and was celebrated by posterity in the Roman Empire.

 Galerius went on to win major wars against the tribes north of the Danube, resulting in massive deportations and resettlement of the population, mostly into Roman Pannonia to increase manpower and tax revenue, in some cases causing a complete annihilation of ancient peoples.

 In 305 , Galerius was named Emperor in the East when the elderly Diocletian abdicated and retired to his palace on the Dalmatian coast .

 A young man later reported that he saw the glorious ruins of Babylon while serving as one of Galerius’ tribunes. This man undoubtedly learned much from the warrior emperor while in his service, and would one day become a great military leader in his own right.

 His name was Constantine… but

 that… is a story for another article.