Battle of Nicopolis 48 BC - Pontus challenges Rome

 

After decisively defeating Pompey Magnus at the battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, Julius Caesar was still far from total victory against the optimates.

 His triumph over the greatest general of the senate meant that he was now the primary source of authority for the eastern parts of the Roman Empire, which up until that point were under the control of the optimates.

 But… even with military preparations completed Caesar could not yet go after the fleeing Pompey, as important administrative decisions needed to be made quickly… With Pompey on the run, Caesar appointed new governors to administrate the vast expanses of the Empire that were now effectively under his control.

 For the vital and large Roman province of Asia, he appointed his faithful lieutenant, Domitius Calvinus, and shortly afterwards Caesar embarked on his fateful journey to Ptolemaic Egypt.

 Domitius’s task was not an easy one.

 Asia-minor was a pretty tumultuous and unstable province during this period, and it was only just a few decades earlier that one of the greatest enemies or Rome, Mithridates Eupator, ravaged and wreaked havoc throughout Asia-Minor.

 Meanwhile, in late 48 BC, Caesar was besieged within the city of Alexandria and in fact got himself into quite a predicament.

 Surrounded and cut off from any reinforcements, the great Roman general probably got closer to defeat than in any other instance during his career.

 Around that time, yet another great rival of the Romans arose.

 Pharnaces II, who was the son of Mithridates Eupator.

 King Pharnaces of Pontus exploited Caesar’s dire situation and began to ravage Anatolia.

 It wasn’t long before he was able to seize Lesser Armenia from the Roman-vassal king Deiotarus.

 He also seized parts of Cappadocia from Ariobarzanes, another Roman-vassal king, and several cities in the Roman province of Bithynia and Pontus which had formerly been part of Mithridates’s Pontic Kingdom.

 King Deiotarus sent urgent messages to Domitius Calvinus, beseeching him: “Not to tolerate the seizure of these provinces by Pharnaces, which belonged to esteemed allies of the Romans…” Domitius couldn’t tolerate, nor could he afford to leave Pharnaces unchecked, not only because the loss of these provinces would have a serious economic impact for Caesar, but because Rome’s prestige, authority, and honor were equally, if not more important than financial concerns.

 And, it wasn’t long before he dispatched messengers to Pharnaces with strict orders to immediately abandon Lesser Armenia and Cappadocia and return to his Kingdom.

 Calvinus being a veteran general of Caesar’s army, knew that strong words were not enough to deter an enemy.

 Therefore, he began extensive military preparations by cleverly and effectively using all of his immediate resources and allies.

 Three legions that were then stationed in the Roman province of Asia, were replenished, and while two of them were dispatched to Egypt in order to assist Caesar, Domitius took the veteran 36th legion with him and ordered King Deiotarus to bring two more legions, apparently recruited from the locals who were trained for several years, and could now match the Roman discipline.

 Calvinus also ordered for a small force of horses to be brought to him by king Ariobarzanes.

 While these preparations were being made, Calvinus sent word to the questor C. Plaetorius, to bring with him another newly recruited legion that was levied near Pontus, and Quinctius Partisius into Cilicia to draw thence a body of auxiliary troops.

 After a series of rapid marches, a total of four legions, a small body of Cilician auxiliaries, and 200 horses were eventually assembled at the city of Comana, by orders of Domitius.

 Meanwhile, messengers returned with Pharnaces’s answer.

 The Mithridatic king claimed that he had departed Cappadocia, but kept possession of Lesser Armenia because, as he said, “it was his by right of inheritance”.

 He then attempted to make a “tactical withdrawal”, by declaring that he was willing to submit everything to the decision of Caesar, to whose commands he would pay “immediate obedience.” Domitius, did not take the bait, knowing full well that Pharnaces didn’t quit Cappadocia voluntarily, but out of tactical necessity.

 Armenia was much more defendable than Cappadocia, and was topographically connected to Pharanaces’s own kingdom.

 In typical steadfast Roman fashion, Domitius outright rejected Pharnaces’s claims and demanded from him to return to his Kingdom and restore the previous status quo.

 He then proceeded to march his newly recruited army along a carefully planned path, along a woody ridge of hills that extended as far as lesser Armenia.

 This elevated path provided good cover to his army and prevented all potential surprises, while at the same time offered a perfect and easily defendable line of communications.

 In the meantime, Pharnaces sent several embassies to Domitius, requesting peace and bearing royal gifts, but to no avail.

 Domitius firmly rejected all of Pharnaces’s messages, declaring that nothing was more sacred to him than the majesty of the Roman people, and restoring the rights of their allies.

 After a long series of marches, Domitius’s legions eventually reached Nicopolis, a city that was situated in a plain, but surrounded by mountains on its two sides, and there he encamped about seven miles away from the city.

 Between the Roman camp and Nicopolis, lay a difficult and narrow pass.

 There, Pharnaces, who was encamped nearby, intended to ambush the Romans… Nevertheless, he continued scheming, sending messages to Domitius, with proposals of peace and amity, in the hope of further ensnaring the Roman general.

 But the Roman commander would not budge.

 For days he kept his army safely encamped, in the hope that a fruitful peace might be achieved, since Pharnaces kept communications open.

 With end of the stalemate nowhere in sight, Pharnaces gave up on his plan to ambush the Romans and withdrew his troops from their positions.

 This movement of troops must have been noticed by Domitus, and Pharnaces’s design soon became apparent to him.

 The Pontic king was biding his time while gathering reinforcements… Next day, the Roman army broke camp and approached the city of Nicopolis.

 There, the legionaries began building a new camp overlooking the Pontic positions.

 While the Romans were working at the trenches, Pharnaces drew up his army in battle order, in an apparent attempt to distract the legionaries from their works.

 The Pontic army formed in a single line, according to their custom, but Pharnaces reinforced both of his wings with a body of reserves.

 Domitius was not intimidated by this display and ordered part of his troops to continue their works before the ramparts, under arms.

 None of the two armies dared to brake the standoff, and the legionaries were eventually able to complete the camp’s fortifications.

 The next day, both armies in battle formation were facing each other across the plain of Nicopolis.

 None had a clear edge.

 The Pontic army had the advantage of higher ground but the Romans were well-entrenched and their communication lines were secured.

 This face-off continued throughout day, but during the night Pharnaces’s scouts intercepted couriers who were bringing to Domitius an account of Caesar’s predicament in Alexandria, and a request for urgent reinforcements.

 Upon hearing of this intelligence, Pharnaces knew that by delaying Domitius from reinforcing Caesar and protracting the engagement, he could achieve a result equivalent to victory.

 He therefore ordered his army to dig two ditches at a moderate distance from each other, in order to block the access to the city and strengthen his position.

 And then resolved not to advance his army beyond them.

 The psychological trick employed by Pharnaces worked.

 Domitius observed the Pontic positions and realized that he now needed to storm their entrenchments if he wanted to dislodge them.

 Being more concerned about Caesar’s predicament than his own, and believing that he could not retreat safely, Domitius led his forces out of the camp, and arrayed them for battle.

 The roman general placed the 36th legion of veterans on his right wing that was exposed to the numerically superior Pontic cavalry.

 In the center, he positioned the 2 legions of Deiotarus which he had spread thin in order to match Pharnaces’ Deployment and avoid being outflanked.

 And finally on the left he positioned the newly recruited legion of Pontic locals, while he had his few auxiliaries dispersed throughout the army.

 Although we don’t have exact numbers, the Romans were probably outnumbered and had almost no cavalry to oppose their Pontic counterparts.

 The signal to attack was given almost simultaneously by both sides.

 It was the veterans of the 36th positioned on the right wing of the Roman formation that first charged against the numerous, but tightly packed Pontic cavalry.

 The veterans of the 36th fell upon the king’s cavalry, which didn’t have enough space to maneuver or escape from their onslaught.

 Their charge was so successful that the cavalry barely stood its ground and soon fled the battlefield, retreating all the way back to the walls of Nicopolis.

 The triumphant legionaries crossed both ditches during their pursuit and eventually turned to attack Pharnaces’ ranks from the rear.

 Meanwhile, on the other side of the field the situation was completely different.

 The inexperienced Pontic legionaries attempted to puncture their way through Pharnaces’ right wing, but they were soon overwhelmed and gave way.

 A second line of legionaries that was making a circuit round the ditch, endeavoring to attack the enemy on the flank, were left unsupported after the retreat of their comrades, and they were soon met by a hail of arrows and darts.

 Thus, Domitius’s left wing was crushed and now the whole weight of the Pontic advance fell upon the legions of Deiotarus.

 The two legions had never seen battle before and scarcely made any resistance.

 After a brief struggle from a disadvantageous position, the outnumbered legionaries disintegrated.

 The victorious forces of the king turned their right wing and main body and charged against the, up until then, victorious veterans of the 36th legion that were already engaged in a fierce fight with the Pontic left wing.

 Here, the Roman veterans demonstrated the stark difference between a battle hardened legion and a newly recruited one.

 The almost surrounded legion made a brave last stand.

 By displaying an incredible presence of mind, the veterans formed themselves into a circle, and by adopting this impregnable formation they were able to make a fighting retreat and eventually reach the foot of a nearby mountain.

 Pharnaces abandoned any further efforts to destroy the remaining roman forces that were now positioned on advantageous ground.

 This was an unexpected and disastrous defeat for the Romans in Asia Minor, and an unprecedented triumph for the Pontic King.

 Almost 2/3rds of the Romans were either killed, captured or wounded, with only the veterans of the 36th legion escaping destruction, having lost only 250 men.

 On the other hand, Pharnaces’ loses were superficial.

 After his defeat, Domitius gathered the remains of his shattered army, and by utilizing his newly acquired knowledge of the area’s topography, retreated westwards through Cappadocia.

 Elated with his triumph, and believing that Caesar was doomed now that Domitius was defeated and could not reinforce him, Pharnaces proceeded to invade Pontus with his entire army.

 There, according to Roman accounts, he acted as a conqueror by capturing and plundering many cities, while subjecting the local population to all sorts of atrocities, eventually restoring most of the areas which had previously been part of his father’s Kingdom, as there was seemingly no one left to oppose him…