Battle of Keresztes 1596 AD (Part 1/3) - Ottoman Superpower clashes with Europe

 

It is the waning years of the 16th century.

 Despite being nominally at peace since 1568, the borderlands of the Habsburg and Ottoman domains are still subject to constant raids and small-scale conflict. Given that this period of supposed peace between the two empires was commonly referred to as the “little war”, it was clear that the resumption of large-scale military campaigns was ultimately inevitable.

 Although both empires had recently signed a 9-year peace treaty,

 in 1591, any hope that it can be maintained was shattered in the summer of 1592, when the prospect of war became an imminent reality.

 Without a declaration of war, the Ottoman Beylerbey of Bosnia, Hasan Pasha, led an army of 20,000 Janissaries and attacked Croatia, laying siege to the fortress of Sisak.

 While the Croatians managed to repel the Ottomans, they were unable to prevent the capture of the crucial fortified border city of Bihac.

 Hasan Pasha again attempted to capture Sisak the following year, in 1593, with a force of around 15,000. This time however, he was decisively defeated by a 5,000 strong Croatian, Slovenian, and German relief army. The Ottomans suffered nearly 8,000 casualties. Among those killed was Hasan Pasha himself, the Sultan’s nephew Mehmed, and six other beys. When news of the defeat reached Constantinople, the Ottoman nobility, urged on by the Sultan’s sister, called for war.

 Despite the attack being in direct violation of current Ottoman interests and policies, Sultan Murad III felt obliged to retaliate. He deemed the defeat far too embarrassing to ignore.

 Accordingly, Sultan Murad III declared war on the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolph II, and the two superpowers of the era began preparing for a confrontation that would decide the fate of Central Europe for centuries to come.

 Thus, the Long Turkish War, had begun… Understanding the threat that the Ottomans posed to Christian dominance in Europe, Pope Clement VIII re-established the Holy League in 1594. It consisted of a series of military alliances between various European powers, all united under the goal of driving the Ottomans out of Europe, once and for all.

 The coalition included both Catholic and Orthodox nations. Of its members, Wallachia, Transylvania, Moldavia, and the Serbs of Banat, had all been formally under Ottoman rule and were now in open rebellion.

 The Serb, which had begun in March, had expected to receive more support from the Allies. When it failed to materialize, however, the rebellion was ultimately defeated by July of the same year.

 In terms of military objectives for the war, the Ottoman army looked to seize Vienna, while the Habsburgs aimed to

 unite their Hungarian territories.

 In support of their Austrian relatives, the Spanish Habsburgs dispatched a force of 6,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry from the Netherlands, under the command of Karl von Mansfeld.

 In January of 1595, Sultan Murad I died of natural causes. The situation quickly began to worsen for the Ottoman throughout the year. Forced to fight on two fronts, in Wallachia and Hungary, they suffered defeats against the likes of Mihai the Brave at Calugareni and Giurgiu, and at Esztergom against Karl von Mansfeld.

 These victories did not leave the Christian cause unscathed, however, as von Mansfeld was wounded during the siege and died shortly afterwards. As his replacement, Emperor Rudolph II appointed his own brother, the inexperienced Archduke of Austria, Maximilian III.

 However, despite this setback, the Austrian forces continued on to capture the castle of Hatvan, in August of 1596. It is said that after the garrison had capitulated, every Ottoman, including women and children, were slaughtered by the Austrian troops.

 In the same month, the Ottomans

 launched a massive offensive,

 under the personal command of the new Sultan himself, Mehmed III. Source vary significantly on the size of the Ottoman force, with some putting the figure as high as one million. It is speculated that Mehmed III’s army was larger than the host led by Suleiman the Magnificent, 30 years prior, which had numbered around 100,000.

 As such, historians have generally estimated the figure to range anywhere from 100,000 to 150,000, in addition to 170 cannons.

 The Ottoman army of this period was in desperate need of modernization.

 Composed mostly of light cavalry, it is estimated that the infantry arm made up no more than 20% of the army’s total fighting strength.

 It is also important to note,

 that the army did not have any heavy cavalry.

 The only unit possessing firearms, was an elite core of 32,000 Janissaries, with the rest of the army still being equipped with cold weapons.

 The Ottoman host moved slowly, not only due to its size, but also because the Sultan still hadn’t determined the goal of the campaign. Upon reaching the Danube, he convened a war council with his commanders. Because the offensive had begun 3 months later than planned, they concluded that attacking Vienna was unfeasible, this late in the campaigning season.

 Still with no military objective, and unsure in which direction to take the army, some proposed besieging the castle of Komarom, arguing that its capture would secure the Danube frontier.

 However, many nobles opposed this suggestion, believing that the castle was too small and did not deserve to be besieged by the Sultan. After some debate, the council decided on a target more worthy of being captured by their leader.

 Thus, the Ottoman war machine began moving towards the important border fortress of Eger.

 Because of its location, Eger acted as one of the primary links between the allied Habsburg and Transylvanian lands. By capturing it, the Ottoman commanders looked to hinder the Allies’ ability to effectively communicate and supply one another.

 Maximilian III, who was still encamped at Hatvan, managed to send a small detachment to reinforce the castle’s garrison, raising the number of defenders to around 4,000.

 The Sultan’s army arrived around Eger’s walls around September 21st of 1596.

 Despite its importance, and having just received reinforcements, the border fortress was gravely unprepared for a siege and had little hope of repelling the Ottoman tide. When Maximilian III realized the size of the Ottoman host, the Archduke retreated to Esztergom.

 What is strange, however, is that possibly due to his inexperience, Maximilian III did not immediately begin mobilizing the rest of his forces to relieve Eger. It wasn’t until

 October 4th, nearly two weeks later, that the Archduke finally began to take action and make his way towards the border fortress.

 Mustering what additional forces he could while on the move, Maximilian III also sent word to his commanders, to gather their troops and join him in relieving Eger. Additionally, Sigismund Bathory, the Prince of Transylvania, offered his assistance, which the Archduke accepted.

 Bad weather and poor roads caused even more delays. The constant autumn rain made many of the mountain paths impassable, as the dirt roads turned into thick mud. This made travel exceedingly difficult, especially for a large army with a large baggage train.

 Both men and animal were left behind in large numbers, either due to fatigue, hunger, disease, or combination of the three. Some sources have suggested that the Archduke may have lost up to 1/3 of his army during this difficult march.

 Eger’s garrison surrendered on October 13th, the siege having lasted just over three weeks.

 In retaliation for Hatvan, the Sultan ordered every captured Austrian to be executed, while sparing the Hungarian units in the garrison.

 Upon learning that Eger had fallen, Maximilian III held a war council, to determine the army’s next move.

 It is here that we should take the time to introduce the leadership

 of the Allied Christian forces.

 While Archduke Maximilian

 III was commander-in-chief,

 due to his lack of military experience a council was established to help lead the army.

 The most experienced commanders were Adolph von Schwarzenberg and Miklos Palffy.

 Schwarzenberg, a renowned general and Field Marshal of the Austrian army, was responsible for most of the tactical and strategic planning.

 Count Palffy led the troops from Royal Hungary and had significant experience in fighting against the Ottoman style of war, having done so all his life. In command of the units from Upper Hungary was Captain Christoph von Tiefenbach.

 The Transylvanians were led by Prince Sigismund Bathory, with the mercenary captain Albert Kiraly commanding the Prince’s largest contingent.

 It is generally accepted that the Christian force numbered around 40 to 50 thousand, with 97 cannons. It included troops from all over Europe, with its largest contingent being supplied by Austria, Germany, Royal Hungary, Upper Hungary, Transylvania, and Silesia. Much of the army was equipped with firearms, and at least half of the army was composed of infantry. While the Allies had fewer cannons, these were of higher quality than those of the Ottomans. In addition to their advantage in modern weaponry, the Christian forces had complete supremacy in terms of heavy cavalry as well.

 After some discussion, the Christian commanders determined the best course of action, would be to re-take Eger. They assumed that it would likely be too damaged after the recent siege to mount any meaningful defense. They further believed that the terrain around Eger would further prevent the Ottomans from utilizing their superior numbers effectively. However, unsure of what the Ottoman plans were, they agreed to wait near the fields of Mezokeresztes, due to its defensible position.

 The Ottomans, at this point still did not know the strength of the Allied Christian force opposing them. Given the size of the Sultan’s host, he did not take the threat seriously.

 He detached a force of around 15 to 20 thousand, consisting of Rumelians, Tatars, and Janissaries, along with 43 cannons, under the command of Jaffar Pasha. Jaffar Pasha, by many accounts appears to have been an experienced and reliable commander. It is also worth mentioning, that there is still some speculation as to why this force was sent. Some sources state that the Sultan had ordered Jaffar Pasha to ambush the Christian camp during the night. This appears to be the most likely. However, it is also suggested, that the force may have been sent to gather information about the strength of the opposing Christian army, rather than to confront it.

 The opposing armies would meet in the fields of the ruined village of Mezokeresztes.

 To the west of the village lay the Kachi stream, with only two points suitable for a crossing, due to the swampy terrain that ran along either side of the stream. The village itself, along with many others in the area, had been destroyed during the siege of Eger.

 Jaffar Pasha, having arrived slightly before the Christians with his army, had already ordered the Rumelian cavalry to cross the stream. He left his Tatar auxiliaries, Janissaries, and cannons in position to support from the opposite bank.

 In order to further strengthen his position, he had the only bridge in the area dismantled.

 While the area underneath the

 bridge was still fordable,

 it would make any attempt to cross in-force much more difficult.

 The Ottoman commander hoped to use his cavalry to lure the Christian forces into the range of his rifles and artillery.

 This tactic of feigned retreat had long been the favorite of the Ottomans; very effective against European troops due to their heavy armor.

 However, having received information gathered by their spies and through interrogating prisoners, the Christian army was aware that a force had been sent against them.

 Knowing that the Ottoman army

 was somewhere in the vicinity,

 they marched in battle formation and were ready for a quick response.

 Late in the afternoon of October 22, 600 forward riders of the Christian army made contact with the Ottoman vanguard, near the ruined village of Mezokeresztes. Albert Kiraly, who was with the Transylvanian vanguard, quickly sent 300 lancers in support.

 Still heavily outnumbered, however, the forward riders sent for further reinforcements.

 Schwarzenberg moved quickly, bringing with him around 10,000 Austrian and German riders, in addition to the full Transylvanian vanguard.

 Palffy followed close behind as well, with a large number of Hungarian hussars.

 As Schwarzenberg’s cavalry were about to engage, the rest of the Christian army also progressed towards the battlefield. The Rumelian cavalry, who had up to this point been holding their own, began to flee. Fortunately for them, the Janissaries were able to cover their retreat, keeping the chasing Austrian and Hungarian riders at bay with rifle fire. The Rumelians, however, did not regroup on the opposite bank, but rather continued to flee from the field.

 As the Hungarian and Transylvanian infantry began to arrive, a fierce firefight ensued, as they exchanged gunfire with the Janissaries across the stream. Up until this point, the Ottomans were yet to

 activate their artillery.

 Now, unable to retreat due to the proximity of the Christian forces, they realized that their only hope of surviving was to hold back the Christian tide until sundown.

 They unleashed their 43 cannons.

 In response, the Christian light infantry quickly spread out among the ruins of Mezokeresztes and continued to return fire across the stream.

 Schwarzenberg ordered 6 cannons to be brought up, in order to help force the way across the ford.

 With some artillery support, Albert Kiraly rallied his troops and again made an attempt to cross, only to be forced back by intense and concentrated Ottoman fire.

 Due to the narrowness of the ford, it was clear that the Christians will not be able to cross without sustaining extreme casualties.

 The Transylvanian captain instead decided to look for another suitable point to traverse the stream. He was able to find one further north, bringing with him 800 of the elite Blue Uniform Personal guards of the Transylvanian prince, along with some 500 cavalry.

 The Transylvanian captain formed his men on a small hill, overlooking the Ottoman left flank. He ordered his troops not to engage until the entire force was in position.

 When the order was finally given, hundreds of rifles roared into the unsuspecting Ottoman flank, throwing both Janissary infantry

 and Tatar cavalry into confusion.

 Looking to further exploit the

 chaos, the Transylvanian captain

 ordered his entire force to charge.

 The Christian cavalry made first contact, driving into the Ottoman ranks, who were still reeling from the initial rifle volley!

 It was at this point that

 the Tatar auxiliaries fled,

 leaving the infantry to

 their fate. At the same time,

 the Christian forces on the opposite bank renewed their efforts to force their way across.

 The pressure was simply too much for the already demoralized Janissaries, having been abandoned by most of their cavalry and now pressed on two sides. The resolve of these elite and professional soldiers, the pride of the Ottoman army, finally broke.

 With the rout of the Janissaries, what remained of the Ottoman force shattered and fled, in the wake of the Christian onslaught. The lighter units of Hungarian infantry and cavalry began running down the fleeing Ottomans, only giving up the chase as night fell.

 The entire confrontation

 had lasted at most 1 hour.

 The Ottoman losses during this initial clash were around 500 to 1000, with all of their 43 cannons captured by their enemy. The Christian losses were negligible, with sources stating around 15 dead, although this figure may be biased.

 Regardless, it can be gathered that the Christian forces suffered far fewer casualties compared to the Ottomans, during this initial encounter.

 In a report sent to the Sultan

 before the battle, Jaffar Pasha

 had incorrectly estimated the Christian army to number around 30 to 35 thousand strong.

 It is further mentioned that upon hearing the size of the opposing army, many of the Ottoman commanders began urging retreat. Jaffar Pasha rejected this notion for two reasons, however.

 Firstly, because his force had up to that point faced few difficulties and had not yet run into any resistance, he thought it would be shameful to return to the Sultan, having accomplished so little. Secondly, he believed that victory was a very real possibility, given the favorable terrain. However, Jaffar Pasha had underestimated the Christian commanders, who were highly familiar with the area, having campaigned there for much of the war.

 While the initial Ottoman plan of luring the Christian army into concentrated rifle and cannon fire was sound, it is evident that they had not expected the initial detachment of riders to hold out for as long as they did.

 These forward riders had not actually been a part of the Christian vanguard, but were rather sent to find a suitable campground for the main army. The Rumelian cavalry, for whatever reason, were unable to lure their enemy, either possibly due to the cautiousness of the Christian commanders, or because of the narrow terrain, which limited their ability to maneuver effectively. Because the Ottomans were unable to rout this forward unit quickly, they allowed for enemy reinforcements to steadily pour in and eventually for the entire Allied army to appear.

 It is also possible, that the Rumelians were still in the process of crossing the stream when they were engaged by the Christian riders. Either way, their attempts to disengage and feign retreat turned into a genuine route at the sight of the entire Christian army.

 It is also important to note, that the Rumelian cavalry were simply not equipped for such prolonged close-quarters combat, especially against more heavily armed and armoured European style troops.

 This initial engagement further showed, that while the terrain was highly advantageous to its defender, it did not guarantee success against a numerically superior foe.

 The Ottomans were also lucky

 that the confrontation began

 so late in the day, which helped them minimize the casualties sustained during the rout.

 However, despite this minor victory, the Allied Christian leadership understood that the Ottomans were far from defeated. The Sultan’s main host still stood between them and Eger.

 Both sides prepared themselves for the massive confrontation, that was yet to come.